Scenario 2: Emergency procedures Part 2
This post focuses on emergency procedures to be carried out in the case of injuries due to radiological hazards. In this context, injury types are broadly segmented into two categories; severe injuries and minor injuries (not requiring hospitalisation). Treatment should be conducted immediately to minimise detriment to the injured person.
Treatment of serious injuries takes precedence over any other consideration and assistance to the jured should be provided immediately, regardless of radiation contamination.
In case of serious injuries:
- Flush contaminated minor cuts with large volumes of tepid running water, while spreading the edges of the gash.
- Remove the individual from the contaminated area.
- Use an emergency shower to rapidly wash off or dilute the contaminant. Watch out for slippery floors.
- Remove contaminated clothing and isolate for later evaluation.
- If necessary, flush eyes, ears, nose and mouth. Cotton swabs can be used to clean ear and nasal passages.
- Provide a blanket or dry clothing to the individual and have them sit down when possible to avoid fainting due to the shock of the cold water and the stress of the situation.
- If ingestion of contamination is suspected, consider the need to perform timely bioassay.
- Notify the lab supervisor and appropriate personnel, requesting emergency medical assistance
- Advise the lab supervisor of the radiation hazard, the amount and chemical form of the material, any other important information
- Advise emergency personnel of the radioactive material, extent of contamination, nature of the injuries and other relevant information. Be available for further consultation
- Ensure that the victim cannot be further contaminated by radioactive material
- Minimize the possibility of contamination of emergency medical personnel. Ensure that they do not take personal risk.
- Notify permit holder immediately: RPS (Remedial Priority Scoring) will be notified by Campus Police.
In case of minor wounds:
- Treat the wound immediately at or near the site of the accident
- Clean the affected area with sterile swabs
- Wash the contaminated wound with warm water to encourage minor bleeding
- Wet skin and apply soap
- Work up a good lather; keep lather wet.
- Work lather into contaminated area by rubbing gently for two or three minutes. Apply water frequently.
- Rinse area with tepid water.
- Repeat procedure several times if necessary, using a soft brush to gently scrub the affected area. Discontinue before skin becomes abraded or sensitive. Apply hand cream if skin becomes chapped.
- If your hands are contaminated, pay particular attention to monitoring between fingers and under nails. Clip nails if necessary to remove fixed contamination. Only after several attempts with soap and water should harsher decontamination methods and cleaning agents are considered
- The benefits of decontamination should be weighed against the potential injury caused by harsher methods of decontamination.
- In the case of facial wounds, protect the mouth, ears, eyes and nose from contamination
- Wash wound with mild soap and water, repeating as necessary.
- After decontamination, apply first aid dressing.
- Notify the permit holder and RPS immediately.
References:
Elmer, P. (2011). Guide to the Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials in Research. Retrieved from http://shop.perkinelmer.com/content/manuals/gde_safehandlingradioactivematerials.pdf
Furr, A. K. (2000) CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety. (5th ed.). FL: CRC Press.
Nave, C., R. (2011). Radioactivity. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radact.html
Princeton University. (2007). Radiation Safety Guide. Retrieved from http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/radsafeguide/rsg_sec_17.htm
Tangen, L. (Ed.). (2006) Handling radioactive waste. Retrieved from Norwegian University of Science and Technology website: http://www.ntnu.no/hms/retningslinjer/HMSR35E.pdf
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Radiation Protection: Health Effects. Retrieved from http://epa.gov/radiation/understand/health_effects.html
Labels: emergency procedures, scenario 2, skin decontamination, wounds
Scenario 2: Decontamination
This post is dedicated to the protocol to be undertaken during decontamination of areas affected by radioactive materials during laboratory usage.
Personnel Decontamination
- Decontamination of personnel is essential to prevent intakes by consumption, inhalation or absorption through skin. This is to decrease the external exposure from radioactive materials that resides on the skin or clothing.
- It is important to measure and record decontamination to direct response and assess exposure. After each phase, monitoring or decontamination should be repeated in order to evaluate the effectiveness of measures.
- Initial decontamination should be swift and comprehensive, but using only soap and water, or through flushing with clean water.
- To avoid the spread of contamination to floors and other surfaces decontamination should be carefully performed. Contaminated waste should be appropriately disposed of.
Decontamination of Skin
- Apply soap on moist skin.
- Work up a good lather.
- By rubbing gently for two or three minutes, work lather into contaminated skin. Apply water regularly.
- Rinse area with lukewarm water.
- Repeat procedure several times if required by using a soft brush to softly scrub the affected area. Before skin becomes abraded or sensitive, discontinue procedure. Hand cream can be applied if skin becomes chapped.
- Pay particular attention to monitoring between fingers and under nails if hands are contaminated.
- To remove fixed contamination, nails should be clipped if mandatory.
- Only after numerous attempts with soap and water should harsher decontamination methods and cleaning agents are introduced. These methods should be under the observation of radiation safety and/or medical personnel.
- The benefits of decontamination should be assessed against the potential injury triggered by harsher methods of decontamination.
Intensive Decontamination (for large quantities of radioactivity)
- Shift the individual from the contaminated area.
- The emergency shower should be used to rapidly wash off or dilute the contaminant. Contaminated clothing is to be removed and isolated for future evaluation.
- Flush eyes, ears, nose and mouth where necessary.
- Cotton swabs can be used to clean ear and nasal passages.
- To avoid fainting (due to the shock of the cold water and the pressure of the situation), provide a blanket or dry clothing to the individual.
- If ingestion of contamination is suspected, contemplate the need to perform timely bioassays (for confirmatory purposes).
References: Elmer, P. (2011). Guide to the Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials in Research. Retrieved from http://shop.perkinelmer.com/content/manuals/gde_safehandlingradioactivematerials.pdf
Furr, A. K. (2000) CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety. (5th ed.). FL: CRC Press.
Nave, C., R. (2011). Radioactivity. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radact.html
Princeton University. (2007). Radiation Safety Guide. Retrieved from http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/radsafeguide/rsg_sec_17.htm
Tangen, L. (Ed.). (2006) Handling radioactive waste. Retrieved from Norwegian University of Science and Technology website: http://www.ntnu.no/hms/retningslinjer/HMSR35E.pdf
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Radiation Protection: Health Effects. Retrieved from http://epa.gov/radiation/understand/health_effects.html
Labels: Decontamination
Scenario 2: Emergency procedures part 1
This blog post highlights the emergency procedures to be undertaken during major/minor spills of radioactive material, as well as the procedures to be carried out during airborne contamination of radioactive materials.
Minor Spill
A minor spill involves the spill of radioactive material under 2.5L or 25 square feet. If a minor spill occurs,
- Notify others in the room immediately.
- Limit the number of people in the area.
- Wear protective clothing.
- Take immediate steps to confine the spill. For liquid spills, place absorbent paper on the spill. For dry spills, place damp absorbent materials over the spill, ensure the contamination does not spread. Water may generally be used, unless chemical reaction with water generates an air contaminant. Oil may then be used as a substitute.
- Block off contaminated areas to ensure that others will not enter.
- Do not allow anyone to leave the contaminated area without being monitored. Take note of all people involved with the spill.
Major Spill
A major spill involves the spill of radioactive material over 2.5L or 25 square feet. If a major spill occurs,
- Notify all persons NOT involved in the spill to vacate at once.
- Flush thoroughly if spill is on the skin.
- Discard outer or protective clothing at once If the spill is on clothing.
- Vacate and secure the room to avoid re-entry.
- Limit the movement of persons involved in the spill to a specified area, preventing the spread of contamination. Do not allow people to leave the area without being monitored. Note persons involved in the spill.
Possibility of Airborne Contamination
An airborne emission of radioactive material may occur due to evaporation; vaporization; explosion; combustion; formation of a smoke, dust or spray; gas escape, etc. If an airborne release occurs:
- Evacuate everyone from the area immediately.
- Shut all doors to the room.
- Put up appropriate signs to ensure that no one re-enters the room or area.
- Gather people who were present at the incident near the contaminated area to minimize the spread of contamination, but far enough to prevent continued involvement. Do not permit these persons to leave the place of assembly until after the Health Physicist has arrived, except in instances of medical emergency
- If contamination of the skin or clothing is known or suspected, begin personal decontamination as elaborated in the next post.
References:
Elmer, P. (2011). Guide to the Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials in Research. Retrieved from http://shop.perkinelmer.com/content/manuals/gde_safehandlingradioactivematerials.pdf
Furr, A. K. (2000) CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety. (5th ed.). FL: CRC Press.
Montgomery, L. (1995) Health and Safety Guidelines for the Laboratory. USA: ASCP Press.
Nave, C., R. (2011). Radioactivity. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radact.html
Princeton University. (2007). Radiation Safety Guide. Retrieved from http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/radsafeguide/rsg_sec_17.htm
Tangen, L. (Ed.). (2006) Handling radioactive waste. Retrieved from Norwegian University of Science and Technology website: http://www.ntnu.no/hms/retningslinjer/HMSR35E.pdf
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Radiation Protection: Health Effects. Retrieved from http://epa.gov/radiation/understand/health_effects.html
Labels: emergency procedures, major, minor, spills
Scenario 2: Handling of radioactive materials
This blog post focuses on proper handling of radioactive materials during laboratory usage. This would help ensure the safety of the user, persons sharing the laboratory working area as well as others during the utilisation of radioactive materials in experiments.
Proper handling of radioactive materials in the laboratory:
- Use personal protective equipment (PPE), including disposable gloves, lab coat, safety glasses
- Conducts experiments in a fume hood if gas, vapor, dust, or aerosols are released.
- Do not consume food and avoid contact with face, particularly the mouth, in any area that has been classified “Caution - Radioactive Materials”.
- Use appropriate pipetting devices instead of mouth-pipetting.
- Radioactive materials must be put under surveillance and unauthorised access should not be allowed.
- Secure stock vials with locks when not in use.
- Do not keep food or drink containers in the same location as radioactive materials, particularly refrigerators.
- Do not bring personal belongings into the radioactive work areas.
- Avoid wearing accessories, shorts and open-toed shoes during lab work.
- Wear a radiation dosimeter.
- Do not work if you have an open cut or wound.
- Assume that containers classified “Caution - Radioactive Materials” are also contaminated and wear disposable gloves when handling such containers.
- Employ the three basic safety principals of time, distance, and shielding and employ good housekeeping techniques.
- Perform a “dry run” when conducting a new experiment, without radioactive materials to learn the procedure.
- Perform liquid radiation work on a non-porous tray.
- Cover the work area with plastic-backed absorbent material.
- Wash hands immediately after work and monitor hands and clothing for radioactive contamination thoroughly during and after work, especially before leaving the lab.
- Wash any areas that are contaminated or suspected to be contaminated, and re-monitor as necessary. Notify Radiation Safety personnel of problems.
- Monitor the rooms where radioactivity is used or stored, especially areas which may come in contact with potentially contaminated hands, e.g. phones, door knobs, and refrigerator handles.
- Workers should be thoroughly familiar with the properties of the radionuclide(s) to be used. If uncertain about the safety of a procedure or have any questions about radioactivity, seek help from more experienced persons or Radiation Safety personnel.
- Disposal of radioactive waste should be done in designated, shielded containers and under appropriate protocol. Further consultation with laboratory safety officers on appropriate disposal of radioactive materials is highly encouraged, especially if certain radioisotopes require special precautions (such as aerosol release of radioisotope particles into the environment)
Extra care should be taken whilst handling radioactive materials and consultation of others who are more experienced is highly recommended to clear any doubts or uncertainties.
References:
Elmer, P. (2011). Guide to the Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials in Research. Retrieved from http://shop.perkinelmer.com/content/manuals/gde_safehandlingradioactivematerials.pdf
Furr, A. K. (2000) CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety. (5th ed.). FL: CRC Press.
Montgomery, L. (1995) Health and Safety Guidelines for the Laboratory. USA: ASCP Press.
Nave, C., R. (2011). Radioactivity. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radact.html
Tangen, L. (Ed.). (2006) Handling radioactive waste. Retrieved from Norwegian University of Science and Technology website: http://www.ntnu.no/hms/retningslinjer/HMSR35E.pdf
Labels: handling, radioactive materials
Scenario 2: Radioisotopes, Radioactivity & the Hazards of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiation
A radioisotope is a derivative of a chemical element that has an unstable nucleus and emits radiation while it decays to a stable form. (An isotope being an alternative of a chemical element that has a different atomic mass)
Radioactivity is the emission of particles from the nuclei as a result of nuclear instability.
Radioisotopes decay and emit radiation, specifically alpha (α) rays, beta (β) rays and gamma (γ) rays. In rare cases, the decay of these radioisotopes (eg. uranium or radium) may result in the production of high speed neutrons which get released during nuclear fission. (Hawkhill, 2007)
The following image illustrates the respective deflections of the particles.
Image obtained from http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age14-16/Nuclear%20physics/text/Magnetic_deflection_of_radiations/index.html
The differing deflections is due to the differing charges and the mass of the particles. α particles are positively charged and much larger, thus the angle of deflection would be smaller and in a different direction as compared to β particles which are significantly lighter and negatively charged, thereby resulting in a larger angle of deflection in the opposite direction. γ particles do not contain a charge, thus there is no angle of deflection when the particle passes through the magnetic field.
The differing penetrating powers of the respective particles is illustrated in the image below.
Image obtained from http://www.imagesco.com/articles/geiger/build_your_own_geiger_counter.html
The order of penetrative power is as follows: α < β < γ, with α being of the lowest penetrative power and γ having the highest penetrative power.
Alpha (α) radiation: Releases α particles that are identical in mass and charge with a 4He nucleus and are the largest amongst the 3 types of particles. They generally carry more energy than γ or β particles, and release that energy quickly while passing through tissue.
> α particles can be stopped by a thin layer of light material, e.g. a sheet of paper, and cannot penetrate the outer, dead layer of skin. Therefore, they do not damage living tissue when outside the body.
>However, if inhaled or swallowed, they emit relatively large amounts of ionizing energy which are detrimental to living cells.
> Contains extensive destructive power but only within a short range.
> When in contact with rapidly dividing membranes and living cells, it can cause maximum damage.
> Possibly one of the main reasons for lung cancer.
Beta (β) radiation: Releases β particles that are identical in mass and charge with a 22Na atom
> A thin sheet of aluminum can stop β particles but these particles are able to penetrate the dead skin layer, potentially causing burns. Thus they pose as a serious direct or external radiation threat and can be lethal depending on the degree of exposure.
> Radiation hazard is the greatest when β particles are ingested or inhaled.
> If there is damage inflicted on the generative cells of the ovaries or testes by β particles, the damage may be hereditary. It can only occur when β radiation has contributed to the mutation of the gene pool.
Gamma (γ) radiation: High-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted by certain radioisotopes during nuclei transition from a higher to a lower energy state. The gamma (γ) rays have high energy and a short wave length.
> All γ rays emitted from a given isotope have the same energy, which is a characteristic that enables scientists to identify which gamma emitters are present in a sample.
> γ rays are able to penetrate tissue deeper than α or β particles, but leave a lower concentration of ions in their path to potentially cause cell damage.
> It is the most useful type of radiation in the medicinal field. However, it is also the most dangerous due to its high penetrative power which thereby allows penetration through thick and large materials.
> It has the ability to damage living cells, causing the cell to slow down by transferring its energy to surrounding cell components.
References:
Ellis, J. G. & Riches, N. J. (1978). Safety and Laboratory Practice. UK: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Gibbs, K. (2011). Deflection of α, β, γ particles in a magnetic field [Digital Image]. Retrieved from http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age14-16/Nuclear%20physics/text/Magnetic_deflection_of_radiations/index.html
Hawkhill Associates. (2007). Radiation [DVD]. Madison, WI: Hawkhill Associates, Inc.
Images Scientific Instruments. (2007). Penetration Power of Radioactivity [Digital Image]. Retrieved from http://www.imagesco.com/articles/geiger/build_your_own_geiger_counter.html
Nave, C., R. (2011). Radioactivity. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/radact.html
Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Management of Chemical Hazards. (2011). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press
Tangen, L. (Ed.). (2006) Handling radioactive waste. Retrieved from Norwegian University of Science and Technology website: http://www.ntnu.no/hms/retningslinjer/HMSR35E.pdf
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Radiation Protection: Health Effects. Retrieved from http://epa.gov/radiation/understand/health_effects.html
Labels: alpha radiation, beta radiation, gamma radiation, hazards, radioactivity, radioisotopes, scenario 2
Scenario 2
Situation:
TP ASc students are not allowed to handle “radioisotopes” during their industrial attachments without proper training from the company. However, current final year VeT students want to learn more about this before their internship in the coming semester so that they are ready to go for hands-on training if necessary. The class rep, Qin Yin proposes to the class about the online study plans on these radioisotopes, its dangers, precautionary measures to be taken, decontamination process and management of its waste products in the laboratory. The class agreed to construct blogs that will contain all the information and discussion of pertinent points.
Labels: dangers, decontamination process, precautionary measures, radioisotopes, waste management
Scenario 1: Biosafety Cabinets I, II and III
BSCs provide both a clean work environment and protection for people who work with biological hazards. BSCs use vertical laminar airflow to create a blockage against airborne particles. They use High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters to decontaminate air entering the work area and out to the surrounding. The air in most BSCs is recirculated by the HEPA filter. The HEPA filter removes airborne particles from the air, excluding chemical fumes.
Use a BSC for experiments with human pathogens that may release aerosols (e.g. vortexing open tubes, pipetting, opening caps after centrifuging, sonicating, aspirating with a syringe, etc.), as well as experiments with airborne transmitted pathogens (such as Brucella abortus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, etc.).
Class I: An open-front negative pressure cabinet. The exhaust air is filtered by a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter. The Class I biosafety cabinet will provide personnel and environmental protection, but not product protection.
An example of a Biosafety Cabinet Class I would be as follows...
Image obtained from http://www.nuaire.com
Class II: An open-front, ventilated cabinet, it provides HEPA-filtered, recirculated mass airflow within the work space. Thus, the Class II biosafety cabinet will provide personnel, environment and product protection. While HEPA filters are useful for trapping particulates and infectious agents, these filters do not capture volatile chemicals or gases.
An example of a Biosafety Class II cabinet would be as follows...
Image obtained from http://www.esco.com
Class III: A totally enclosed ventilated cabinet of gas-tight construction. Experiments within the Class III cabinet are carried out through attached rubber gloves. During use, the cabinet is maintained through negative air pressure of at least 0.5 inches water gauge. Supply air is drawn into the cabinet through HEPA filters. The cabinet exhaust air is filtered by two HEPA filters, installed in series, before discharge outside of the facility. The exhaust fan for the Class III cabinet is generally apart from the exhaust fans of the facility's ventilation system.
An example of a Biosafety Cabinet Class III would be as follows...
Image obtained from http://www.etelstar.com
Most Biological Safety cabinets have an 8-inch opening in the front through which the operator can work. This area is also used to draw in contaminated air in the room, which is then forced down through a slotted tray at the front of the cabinet, towards a back pipe, where it is mixed with contaminated air from the work surface.
Contaminated air is then drawn into a blower that travels about 1/3 of it through an exhaust HEPA filter and then out to the surroundings. The other 2/3 of the contaminated air is transported back down through a workspace HEPA filter located directly over the work surface. This fills the work surface with clean HEPA-filtered air, and provides a blockage to prevent unfiltered room air from entering the area of the work surface. Biological safety cabinets utilize HEPA filters to provide maximum protection for products, people, and the laboratory environment. In order to ensure optimal safety and performance these HEPA filtration devices, regular tests have to be conducted and have the devices re-certified by qualified professionals.
Ellis, J. G. & Riches, N. J. (1978). Safety and Laboratory Practice. UK: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Esco. (2012). Labculture® Class II, Type A2 Biological Safety Cabinet [Digital Image]. Retrieved from http://www.escoglobal.com/product.php?id=LA2-A
Iowa State University. (2005). Biosafety Cabinets. Retrieved from http://www.ehs.iastate.edu/cms/default.asp?action=article&ID=40
Nuaire. (n.d.). LabGard 813 Class I Biosafety Cabinet [Digital Image]. Retrieved from http://www.nuaire.com/labgard/813/class1-vented-balance-enclosure.htm
Telstar. (2009). High Containment Biosafety Cabinet [Digital Image]. Retrieved from http://www.etelstar.com/en/communications/news/high+containment+biological+safety+cabinet.htm
World Health Organization. (2004). Laboratory Biosafety Manual (3rd ed.). Retrieved from WHO, Geneva: http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/biosafety/Biosafety7.pdf
Labels: Biosafety cabinets I, II, III
